Terminology for phenomena and principles
A working glossary of named paradoxes, effects, principles, laws, and recurring ideas that are useful for describing behavior, systems, incentives, memory, ethics, and decision-making.
117 entries
Парадокс Симпсона · Парадокс Сімпсона · Paradoja de Simpson · Paradoxo de Simpson · シンプソンのパラドックス
A trend visible inside separate groups can disappear or reverse when the groups are combined, usually because a hidden variable changes the aggregate picture.
Окно Овертона · Вікно Овертона · Ventana de Overton · Janela de Overton · オーバートンの窓
The range of ideas and opinions considered acceptable in public discourse at a given time. Ideas outside it are treated as radical or unacceptable.
Принцип Парето · Принцип Парето · Principio de Pareto · Princípio de Pareto · パレートの法則
A small share of causes often produces most of the result: commonly framed as 20 percent of effort creating 80 percent of the outcome.
Эффект плацебо · Ефект плацебо · Efecto placebo · Efeito placebo · プラセボ効果
A person's condition improves because they believe a treatment will work, even when the treatment itself has no active therapeutic mechanism.
Эффект кобры · Ефект кобри · Efecto cobra · Efeito cobra · コブラ効果
Also known as Perverse Incentive
A poorly designed incentive makes the original problem worse. The classic story is a bounty for dead cobras that encouraged people to breed cobras.
Эффект наблюдателя · Ефект спостерігача · Efecto observador · Efeito do observador · 観察者効果
People change their behavior when they know they are being watched. It is especially visible in social experiments, workplaces, and public settings.
Эффект Даннинга — Крюгера · Ефект Даннінга — Крюгера · Efecto Dunning-Kruger · Efeito Dunning-Kruger · ダニング＝クルーガー効果
People with low skill may overestimate their competence, while highly skilled people may underestimate theirs, because self-assessment itself requires expertise.
Парадокс выбора · Парадокс вибору · Paradoja de la elección · Paradoxo da escolha · 選択のパラドックス
Also known as Paradox of Plenty
More options can make choosing harder and reduce satisfaction with the final decision, because abundance adds stress, comparison, and regret.
Эффект Пигмалиона · Ефект Пігмаліона · Efecto Pigmalión · Efeito Pigmaleão · ピグマリオン効果
Also known as Rosenthal Effect
High expectations from others can improve performance and behavior. It often appears in education, management, and mentoring relationships.
Эффект бабочки · Ефект метелика · Efecto mariposa · Efeito borboleta · バタフライ効果
Tiny changes in initial conditions can lead to large and unpredictable outcomes in complex systems. The term is associated with chaos theory.
Проблема вагонетки · Проблема вагонетки · Problema del tranvía · Problema do elétrico · トロッコ問題
An ethical dilemma about choosing between harms in order to minimize total damage. It is used to study moral reasoning under pressure.
Эффект Манделы · Ефект Мандели · Efecto Mandela · Efeito Mandela · マンデラ効果
A shared false memory, where many people confidently remember something that did not happen or happened differently than they recall.
Закон Мёрфи · Закон Мерфі · Ley de Murphy · Lei de Murphy · マーフィーの法則
Anything that can go wrong will go wrong. It humorously captures the inevitability of problems in complex situations and systems.
Парадокс лжеца · Парадокс брехуна · Paradoja del mentiroso · Paradoxo do mentiroso · 嘘つきのパラドックス
A self-referential contradiction, usually expressed as 'This sentence is false.' It exposes limits in formal logic and truth statements.
Эффект снежного кома · Ефект снігової кулі · Efecto bola de nieve · Efeito bola de neve · 雪だるま効果
Also known as Avalanche Effect
A small action or event starts a chain reaction that grows in force and scale, often in social, economic, or organizational systems.
Эффект Барнума · Ефект Барнума · Efecto Barnum · Efeito Barnum · バーナム効果
Also known as Forer Effect
People interpret vague and general personality descriptions as uniquely accurate. The effect helps explain belief in horoscopes and generic personality readings.
Парадокс Монти Холла · Парадокс Монті Холла · Problema de Monty Hall · Problema de Monty Hall · モンティ・ホール問題
A probability puzzle showing that switching choices after new information is revealed can improve the chance of winning, despite seeming counterintuitive.
Закон Амары · Закон Амари · Ley de Amara · Lei de Amara · アマラの法則
People tend to overestimate the effect of technology in the short run and underestimate it in the long run.
Эффект Рингельмана · Ефект Рінгельмана · Efecto Ringelmann · Efeito Ringelmann · リンゲルマン効果
Also known as Social Loafing
Individual effort often decreases as group size increases, because people feel less personal responsibility for the shared result.
Эффект Зейгарник · Ефект Зейгарник · Efecto Zeigarnik · Efeito Zeigarnik · ツァイガルニク効果
Unfinished tasks are remembered better than completed ones. This helps explain why unresolved work keeps occupying attention.
Парадокс Бера · Парадокс Бера · Paradoja de Behr · Paradoxo de Behr · ベールのパラドックス
Increasing access to a resource can unexpectedly encourage overuse, producing shortage, degradation, or a worse overall situation.
Хоторнский эффект · Хоторнський ефект · Efecto Hawthorne · Efeito Hawthorne · ホーソン効果
Performance or behavior improves because people receive attention from researchers or supervisors, rather than because the underlying conditions changed.
Парадокс дружбы · Парадокс дружби · Paradoja de la amistad · Paradoxo da amizade · 友情のパラドックス
Most people's friends have, on average, more friends than they do, because highly connected people appear in more social circles.
Критика Лукаса · Критика Лукаса · Crítica de Lucas · Crítica de Lucas · ルーカス批判
Economic forecasts can fail because people change behavior in response to the policies or expectations that the forecasts assume.
Парадокс упорядоченности · Парадокс впорядкованості · Paradoja del orden · Paradoxo da ordem · 整然さのパラドックス
Attempts to simplify or organize a complex system can sometimes make it more complicated and harder to manage.
Закон Паркинсона · Закон Паркінсона · Ley de Parkinson · Lei de Parkinson · パーキンソンの法則
Work expands to fill the time available for its completion, regardless of the task's intrinsic complexity.
Эффект якоря · Ефект якоря · Efecto de anclaje · Efeito de ancoragem · アンカリング効果
The first piece of information strongly influences later judgments, estimates, and decisions, even when the anchor is arbitrary.
Эффект градиента цели · Ефект градієнта мети · Efecto de gradiente de meta · Efeito de gradiente de objetivo · 目標勾配効果
People often exert more effort as they get closer to a goal, because visible progress increases motivation.
Закон Гудхарта · Закон Гудгарта · Ley de Goodhart · Lei de Goodhart · グッドハートの法則
When a measure becomes a target, it stops being a good measure. Campbell's Law is closely related: social indicators used for decisions become easier to manipulate.
Эффект Стрейзанд · Ефект Стрейзанд · Efecto Streisand · Efeito Streisand · ストライサンド効果
An attempt to hide or suppress information draws more attention to it and causes it to spread more widely.
Эффект оплошности · Ефект оплошності · Efecto pratfall · Efeito pratfall · プラットフォール効果
A mistake can make a competent person seem more likable and human, because imperfection reduces distance.
Синдром самозванца · Синдром самозванця · Síndrome del impostor · Síndrome do impostor · インポスター症候群
People doubt their achievements and fear being exposed as frauds, even when there is strong evidence of competence.
Эффект Чезаре · Ефект Чезаре · Efecto Cesare · Efeito Cesare · チェーザレ効果
Information expressed in a complicated way can appear more convincing or truthful, even when complexity does not improve accuracy.
Эффект ложного консенсуса · Ефект хибного консенсусу · Efecto de falso consenso · Efeito do falso consenso · 偽の合意効果
People overestimate how much others share their beliefs, preferences, judgments, or behavior.
Правило Гамильтона · Правило Гамільтона · Regla de Hamilton · Regra de Hamilton · ハミルトンの法則
Altruistic behavior can evolve when the benefit to relatives, weighted by genetic relatedness, exceeds the cost to the individual.
Эффект Матфея · Ефект Матвія · Efecto Mateo · Efeito Mateus · マタイ効果
Initial success tends to create more success, while early disadvantage can compound into further disadvantage.
Устойчивость убеждений · Стійкість переконань · Perseverancia de las creencias · Perseverança das crenças · 信念の固執
First impressions and initial beliefs can persist even after later evidence contradicts them.
Эффект присоединения · Ефект приєднання · Efecto de arrastre · Efeito de arrastamento · バンドワゴン効果
People are more likely to support an idea, product, or behavior when it already appears popular.
Синдром утёнка · Синдром каченяти · Síndrome del patito · Síndrome do patinho · アヒルの子症候群
People favor the first system, tool, or experience they learned, even when later alternatives may be better.
Парадокс толерантности · Парадокс толерантності · Paradoja de la tolerancia · Paradoxo da tolerância · 寛容のパラドックス
Unlimited tolerance can be destroyed by intolerant forces if a tolerant society refuses to defend itself against intolerance.
Предвзятость слепого пятна · Упередження сліпої плями · Sesgo del punto ciego · Viés do ponto cego · バイアスの盲点
People notice cognitive biases in others more easily than they notice the same biases in themselves.
Парадокс избытка времени · Парадокс надлишку часу · Paradoja de la abundancia de tiempo · Paradoxo da abundância de tempo · 時間過剰のパラドックス
Having more free time can lead to using that time less effectively, because scarcity often creates focus and structure.
Правило пика и конца · Правило піку і кінця · Regla del pico y el final · Regra do pico e do fim · ピーク・エンドの法則
People remember experiences largely by their most intense moment and by how they ended, not by the total average experience.
Когнитивная перегрузка · Когнітивне перевантаження · Sobrecarga cognitiva · Sobrecarga cognitiva · 認知的過負荷
Too much information reduces the ability to think clearly, make decisions, and process important details.
Эффект краудсорсинга · Ефект краудсорсингу · Efecto crowdsourcing · Efeito de crowdsourcing · クラウドソーシング効果
Collective input can produce better answers than individual judgment when diverse perspectives are combined well.
Синдром башни из слоновой кости · Синдром вежі зі слонової кістки · Síndrome de la torre de marfil · Síndrome da torre de marfim · 象牙の塔症候群
A person or group becomes insulated by knowledge, authority, or success and stops taking practical criticism seriously.
Парадокс демократии · Парадокс демократії · Paradoja de la democracia · Paradoxo da democracia · 民主主義のパラドックス
Majority decisions are not always optimal, wise, or fair, especially when incentives, information, or rights are unevenly distributed.
Эффект бумеранга · Ефект бумеранга · Efecto boomerang · Efeito bumerangue · ブーメラン効果
An attempt to persuade someone produces the opposite reaction, strengthening resistance instead of changing their mind.
Эффект ложной дилеммы · Ефект хибної дилеми · Efecto de falso dilema · Efeito do falso dilema · 偽のジレンマ効果
A situation is framed as if only a limited set of choices exists, hiding other possible options.
Эффект спящего · Ефект сплячого · Efecto durmiente · Efeito adormecido · スリーパー効果
Information from a questionable source may become more persuasive over time as memory of the source fades.
Предвзятость ассимиляции · Упередження асиміляції · Sesgo de asimilación · Viés de assimilação · 同化バイアス
New information is interpreted through existing beliefs, making evidence feel more supportive of what someone already thinks.
Парадокс Джевонса · Парадокс Джевонса · Paradoja de Jevons · Paradoxo de Jevons · ジェヴォンズのパラドックス
Greater efficiency in using a resource can increase total consumption of that resource instead of reducing it.
Эффект зеркалирования · Ефект віддзеркалення · Efecto espejo · Efeito de espelhamento · ミラーリング効果
People subconsciously copy the posture, gestures, speech patterns, or behavior of others during interaction.
Гипотеза слабого мира · Гіпотеза слабкого світу · Hipótesis del mundo débil · Hipótese do mundo fraco · 弱い世界仮説
Universal rules can be easier to break than specific local rules, because broad rules often miss contextual constraints.
Парадокс роста · Парадокс зростання · Paradoja del crecimiento · Paradoxo do crescimento · 成長のパラドックス
Sustained growth requires changes that can destabilize the very system that growth depends on.
Эффект стадного мышления · Ефект стадного мислення · Efecto de mentalidad de manada · Efeito de mentalidade de manada · 群れ思考効果
People conform to group behavior or opinion, sometimes against their own judgment, because group belonging feels safer.
Закон Тёрнера · Закон Тернера · Ley de Turner · Lei de Turner · ターナーの法則
Systems that solve one set of problems often create new problems elsewhere.
Эффект Ромео и Джульетты · Ефект Ромео і Джульєтти · Efecto Romeo y Julieta · Efeito Romeu e Julieta · ロミオとジュリエット効果
Restrictions or opposition can make a forbidden relationship, idea, or object more attractive.
Эффект зебры · Ефект зебри · Efecto cebra · Efeito zebra · シマウマ効果
A contrasting environment can make an object or signal more visible.
Эффект перспективы · Ефект перспективи · Efecto de perspectiva · Efeito de perspetiva · 視点効果
Short-term events are often overestimated, while long-term patterns and consequences are underestimated.
Эффект альтернативных издержек · Ефект альтернативної вартості · Efecto del coste de oportunidad · Efeito do custo de oportunidade · 機会費用効果
Regret over missed opportunities can feel stronger than satisfaction from what was actually gained.
Социальная фасилитация · Соціальна фасилітація · Facilitación social · Facilitação social · 社会的促進
The presence of other people can improve or worsen performance depending on task difficulty and confidence.
Эффект общего знания · Ефект спільного знання · Efecto del conocimiento común · Efeito do conhecimento comum · 共有知識効果
People behave differently when they know not only a fact, but also that others know it too.
Эффект свидетеля · Ефект свідка · Efecto espectador · Efeito espectador · 傍観者効果
People are less likely to help when many witnesses are present, because responsibility feels diffused.
Парадокс стабильности · Парадокс стабільності · Paradoja de la estabilidad · Paradoxo da estabilidade · 安定のパラドックス
A stable complex system can become vulnerable to small disruptions because hidden fragilities accumulate during calm periods.
Самоисполняющееся пророчество · Самоздійснюване пророцтво · Profecía autocumplida · Profecia autorrealizável · 自己成就予言
Expectations change behavior in ways that make the expected outcome more likely to happen.
Сократовский парадокс · Сократівський парадокс · Paradoja socrática · Paradoxo socrático · ソクラテスのパラドックス
A wiser person is more aware of the limits of their knowledge and therefore doubts their certainty more.
Эффект выпрашивания · Ефект благання · Efecto de súplica · Efeito de súplica · 懇願効果
Persistent pleading can provoke resistance instead of sympathy, especially when the request feels manipulative or excessive.
Крабовая ментальность · Крабова ментальність · Mentalidad de cangrejo · Mentalidade de caranguejo · カニ籠効果
Members of a group may pull down anyone who starts succeeding, preserving equality by suppressing upward movement.
Эффект малых побед · Ефект малих перемог · Efecto de las pequeñas victorias · Efeito das pequenas vitórias · 小さな勝利の効果
Small visible successes can motivate more strongly than distant large outcomes because they create momentum and confidence.
Эффект ожидания · Ефект очікування · Efecto de expectativa · Efeito de expectativa · 期待効果
Expectations influence perception, interpretation, and behavior, shaping what people notice and how they respond.
Идеомоторный эффект · Ідеомоторний ефект · Efecto ideomotor · Efeito ideomotor · 観念運動効果
Also known as Carpenter Effect
Thinking about a movement can unconsciously produce tiny physical movements that feel intentional or externally guided.
Предвзятость подтверждения · Упередження підтвердження · Sesgo de confirmación · Viés de confirmação · 確証バイアス
People seek, notice, and remember information that supports existing beliefs while discounting contradictory evidence.
Эффект шоковой рекламы · Ефект шокової реклами · Efecto de la publicidad de choque · Efeito da publicidade de choque · ショック広告効果
Provocative or disturbing messages attract attention, though attention does not always translate into trust or persuasion.
Эвристика доступности · Евристика доступності · Heurística de disponibilidad · Heurística da disponibilidade · 利用可能性ヒューリスティック
People judge likelihood by examples that come easily to mind, especially vivid, recent, or emotionally charged examples.
Эффект разбитых окон · Ефект розбитих вікон · Efecto de las ventanas rotas · Efeito das janelas partidas · 割れ窓効果
Visible disorder and small rule violations can encourage more disorder by signaling that norms are not being maintained.
Парадокс бездействия · Парадокс бездіяльності · Paradoja de la inacción · Paradoxo da inação · 不作為のパラドックス
Complex or overwhelming problems can make people avoid action entirely, which lets the problem grow worse.
Эффект конформности · Ефект конформності · Efecto de conformidad · Efeito de conformidade · 同調効果
People tend to agree with a majority view even when it conflicts with their own perception or judgment.
Парадокс равенства · Парадокс рівності · Paradoja de la igualdad · Paradoxo da igualdade · 平等のパラドックス
Attempts to create complete equality can sometimes create new forms of unfairness or hidden hierarchy.
Эффект сожаления · Ефект жалю · Efecto del arrepentimiento · Efeito do arrependimento · 後悔効果
Regret over unused opportunities can intensify over time, especially when people imagine better alternate outcomes.
Эффект Чайкина · Ефект Чайкіна · Efecto Chaikin · Efeito Chaikin · チャイキン効果
Information surges are often accompanied by false, unverified, or distorted details.
Закон Гилберта · Закон Гілберта · Ley de Gilbert · Lei de Gilbert · ギルバートの法則
Anything that can be automated will eventually be automated.
Эффект серендипности · Ефект серендипності · Efecto serendipia · Efeito de serendipidade · セレンディピティ効果
Mistakes, accidents, or chance encounters can lead to important discoveries that were not the original goal.
Эффект искажения коммуникации · Ефект спотворення комунікації · Efecto de ruptura de la comunicación · Efeito de falha na comunicação · コミュニケーション破綻効果
The more intermediaries a message passes through, the more likely it is to become distorted.
Эффект власти · Ефект влади · Efecto del poder · Efeito do poder · 権力効果
Holding power can reduce empathy and weaken the ability to understand the experience of others.
Эффект мимикрии · Ефект мімікрії · Efecto de mimetismo · Efeito de mimetismo · 模倣効果
People unconsciously copy gestures, speech, posture, or behavior, often increasing rapport without noticing it.
Эффект долговой спирали · Ефект боргової спіралі · Efecto de espiral de deuda · Efeito de espiral da dívida · 債務スパイラル効果
Borrowing can lead to further borrowing as debt service grows, creating a self-reinforcing financial burden.
Эффект контраста · Ефект контрасту · Efecto de contraste · Efeito de contraste · 対比効果
Evaluation of an object depends heavily on what it is compared with at that moment.
Эффект слона в комнате · Ефект слона в кімнаті · Efecto del elefante en la habitación · Efeito do elefante na sala · 部屋の中の象効果
An obvious problem is ignored or left unspoken by everyone involved because addressing it is uncomfortable.
Парадокс бережливости · Парадокс ощадливості · Paradoja del ahorro · Paradoxo da poupança · 倹約のパラドックス
If everyone tries to save more at once, total demand can fall and economic growth can slow.
Эффект наследия · Ефект спадщини · Efecto legado · Efeito legado · レガシー効果
Old technologies, methods, and habits persist even when better alternatives exist, because replacement has costs and risks.
Эффект фиксации · Ефект фіксації · Efecto de fijación · Efeito de fixação · 固着効果
Focusing on one option or explanation blocks awareness of alternatives.
Эффект случайного героя · Ефект випадкового героя · Efecto del héroe accidental · Efeito do herói acidental · 偶然の英雄効果
A chance success can create false confidence in someone's competence or method.
Предвзятость нулевого риска · Упередження нульового ризику · Sesgo de riesgo cero · Viés de risco zero · ゼロリスクバイアス
People prefer eliminating a small risk entirely over reducing a larger risk substantially, even when the latter helps more.
Закон Линуса · Закон Лінуса · Ley de Linus · Lei de Linus · リーナスの法則
Given enough observers, errors become easier to find. The idea is often summarized as many eyes making bugs shallow.
Эффект обратного результата · Ефект зворотного результату · Efecto contraproducente · Efeito de retorno · バックファイア効果
Evidence against a belief can sometimes strengthen that belief instead of weakening it.
Закон Галла · Закон Галла · Ley de Gall · Lei de Gall · ゴールの法則
Complex systems that work usually evolve from simple systems that worked. Complex systems designed from scratch often fail.
Закон Годвина · Закон Годвіна · Ley de Godwin · Lei de Godwin · ゴドウィンの法則
As an online discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving Hitler or Nazis approaches one.
Эффект IKEA · Ефект IKEA · Efecto IKEA · Efeito IKEA · IKEA効果
People assign extra value to things they helped create or assemble, even when the result is not objectively better.
Закон накопления ошибок · Закон накопичення помилок · Ley de acumulación de errores · Lei de acumulação de erros · 誤差蓄積の法則
Small mistakes and inaccuracies can accumulate over time until they cause serious consequences or system failures.
Эффект ореола · Ефект ореолу · Efecto halo · Efeito de halo · ハロー効果
A general impression of a person or object influences judgment of specific traits, making evaluations less objective.
Эффект смещающейся базовой линии · Ефект зміщення базової лінії · Efecto de línea de base cambiante · Efeito de linha de base móvel · ベースラインシフト効果
Each generation accepts its current environment as normal and may miss gradual decline or change that happened earlier.
Эффект владения · Ефект володіння · Efecto de dotación · Efeito de dotação · 保有効果
People value things they own more than similar things they do not own, partly because giving them up feels like loss.
Закон Постела · Закон Постела · Ley de Postel · Lei de Postel · ポステルの法則
Also known as Robustness Principle
Be conservative in what you send and liberal in what you accept. The principle encourages resilient interaction between systems or people.
Эффект сома · Ефект сома · Efecto siluro · Efeito bagre · ナマズ効果
A challenging or disruptive participant can stimulate competition and make a group work harder, like a catfish keeping transported fish active.
Парадокс Соломона · Парадокс Соломона · Paradoja de Salomón · Paradoxo de Salomão · ソロモンのパラドックス
People often reason more wisely about other people's problems than about their own.
Эффект Барнума · Ефект Барнума · Efecto Barnum · Efeito Barnum · バーナム効果
Also known as Forer Effect
General and vague statements can feel personally accurate. This duplicate entry is kept because the source list repeats the concept.
Эффект башни из слоновой кости · Ефект вежі зі слонової кістки · Efecto de la torre de marfil · Efeito da torre de marfim · 象牙の塔効果
Also known as Ivory Tower Syndrome
Powerful, knowledgeable, or successful people can lose contact with practical reality and ignore feedback from outside their circle.
Закон Хофштадтера · Закон Гофстедтера · Ley de Hofstadter · Lei de Hofstadter · ホフスタッターの法則
A task always takes longer than expected, even when Hofstadter's Law is taken into account.
Трагедия общин · Трагедія спільного · Tragedia de los comunes · Tragédia dos comuns · 共有地の悲劇
A shared resource can be depleted when each participant acts in personal interest while ignoring long-term collective consequences.
Категорический императив · Категоричний імператив · Imperativo categórico · Imperativo categórico · 定言命法
Kant's moral principle: act only according to a maxim that you could also will to become a universal law.
Закон По · Закон По · Ley de Poe · Lei de Poe · ポーの法則
Without clear signals of humor or sarcasm, parody of extremism can be indistinguishable from sincere extremism.
Парадокс мелкого пруда · Парадокс мілкої водойми · Paradoja del estanque poco profundo · Paradoxo do lago raso · 浅い池のパラドックス
If one should ruin expensive clothes to save a nearby drowning child, similar logic suggests sacrificing resources to save distant lives.
Эффект Флинна · Ефект Флінна · Efecto Flynn · Efeito Flynn · フリン効果
Average IQ test scores rose across much of the twentieth century, likely due to education, nutrition, medicine, information access, and cognitive demands.
Кривая Лаффера · Крива Лаффера · Curva de Laffer · Curva de Laffer · ラッファー曲線
Tax revenue can rise or fall as tax rates change. Very low rates collect little; very high rates can reduce activity or compliance.
Эффект Брэдли · Ефект Бредлі · Efecto Bradley · Efeito Bradley · ブラッドリー効果
People may give socially acceptable answers in polls that differ from how they later vote or behave, distorting predictions.
Ошибка эргодичности · Помилка ергодичності · Falacia de la ergodicidad · Falácia da ergodicidade · エルゴード性の誤謬
Also known as Ergodicity Error
The average outcome across many people or systems is mistaken for what one person or system will experience over time. That leap is valid only under ergodicity conditions that real-world cases often fail. In short: the average result for many people is not necessarily the result one person gets by repeating the same process many times.